Cultural Distance, Psychic Distance & Cultural Adaptation
By Taylor Trapani
Introduction
Intercultural interaction can be a messy and complicated process but can also be rewarding and informational. This chapter focuses on the affects of people's cultural perceptions and how those perceptions affect travel to other cultures. Cultural distance and psychic distance will be discussed first, followed by the process of adapting to a new culture.
I had the once-in-a-lifetime-opportunity to experience intercultural interaction in a communications course called Intercultural and Gender Communications. In this course, we connected via email and Skype with Saudi Arabian women who attend Effat University. The discussions, inquiries and class conversations we had with each other are the basis for many examples in this chapter, which may help you, an American citizen, gain insight and knowledge about Saudi Arabia.
As you read the chapter, pay close attention to how Saudi Arabia and the United States compare and contrast and how your perceptions of Saudi Arabia change. I recommend reflecting on the concepts you have learned in previous chapters of this book since some of them will be mentioned again. Enjoy!
I had the once-in-a-lifetime-opportunity to experience intercultural interaction in a communications course called Intercultural and Gender Communications. In this course, we connected via email and Skype with Saudi Arabian women who attend Effat University. The discussions, inquiries and class conversations we had with each other are the basis for many examples in this chapter, which may help you, an American citizen, gain insight and knowledge about Saudi Arabia.
As you read the chapter, pay close attention to how Saudi Arabia and the United States compare and contrast and how your perceptions of Saudi Arabia change. I recommend reflecting on the concepts you have learned in previous chapters of this book since some of them will be mentioned again. Enjoy!
Cultural Distance
Think of a country that you believe is very different from America-any country. What makes that country so different? Is it the country's practicing religion? How far away it is? How the country values men and women?
The perception of "difference" between countries can be referred to as cultural distance or psychic distance. The next section of this chapter will cover psychic distance so we will first discuss cultural distance.
Cultural distance is the degree to which cultural norms, world views, attitudes, perceptions and ideas differ between countries (Morosini, Shane, Singh, 1998, p. 143 & Raza, Singh, Dutt, 2001, p. 300). For example, if you thought of a country that you believe is very different than the U.S. because of the geographic distance between the two countries, that is an example of cultural distance. There are many examples of cultural distance and we will focus on one of Researcher Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions and geography.
The perception of "difference" between countries can be referred to as cultural distance or psychic distance. The next section of this chapter will cover psychic distance so we will first discuss cultural distance.
Cultural distance is the degree to which cultural norms, world views, attitudes, perceptions and ideas differ between countries (Morosini, Shane, Singh, 1998, p. 143 & Raza, Singh, Dutt, 2001, p. 300). For example, if you thought of a country that you believe is very different than the U.S. because of the geographic distance between the two countries, that is an example of cultural distance. There are many examples of cultural distance and we will focus on one of Researcher Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions and geography.
Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions
Researcher Geert Hofstede formed five cultural dimensions that measure cultural distance between two countries. The dimensions include power distance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation. To find the definitions of each dimension, look in the previous chapters of this book. Hofstede has a website where the user can input multiple countries to compare and contrast cultural dimensions. Refer to Image 3 when comparing and contrasting the U.S. and Saudi Arabia (S.A.). Cultural dimensions play a large role in increasing or decreasing cultural distance between two countries. If each dimension shows extreme difference between the two countries, there is higher cultural distance. In the same respect, if the two countries have similar scores for each dimension, there is low cultural distance between the two countries. Image 4 is a more general way to represent this concept.
Individualism vs. Collectivism
If a country is highly individualistic, for example the United States which scored 91 out of 100 on the scale, the culture prefers a loose-knit social framework. In this type of culture, people focus on satisfying the wants and needs of themselves and their immediate families. Saudi Arabia however greatly contrasts with the U.S. by scoring at 25. In other words, S.A. is highly collectivistic. Saudi Arabians prefer a tightly-knit social framework and it is expected and maintained that relatives and members of the in-group take care of each other.
Whether a country is highly individualistic or collectivistic plays a major role in contributing to cultural distance. For example, many cross-cultural interactions that take place between the U.S. and Middle Eastern countries happens in the work place. The workplace, whether that consists of business trips, telephone conferences or exchange of emails, is an environment where cultural distance can greatly hinder a work interaction. In a discussion about cultural distance with Professor Johnston's Intercultural and Gender Communications class and Effat University's class, the dissimilarity between individualistic elements of the workplace and collectivistic elements became very clear.
In Saudi Arabia, work is done as a team. Decisions are discussed with all members of the team and work is much more process-focused. Unlike the U.S., the main focus and driving factor of a project is the process of working together and forming relationships with the team. Due to the collectivist process of completing a work project, there is less value of time. Projects are completed at a pace most comfortable to the team.
If an American were to travel to S.A. and work in a Saudi Arabian workplace, their collective nature would probably not sit well with the American. The idea of having one decision be contemplated and reflected on by multiple people may drive the American crazy. The individualistic nature of Americans as goal-oriented and focused on achieving the final product on their own would make teamwork in the workplace a difficult concept to grasp.
The difference in cultural norms and perceptions that the U.S. and S.A. have in the workplace create a greater cultural distance between the two countries. The differences explained above also have the potential to fuel conflict. If the American who traveled to S.A. attempts to work on a project by him/herself and does not easily accept intellectual contributions from others, his Saudi Arabian collages may think he/she is rude and arrogant, when in reality that is just the culture he/she comes from.
Whether a country is highly individualistic or collectivistic plays a major role in contributing to cultural distance. For example, many cross-cultural interactions that take place between the U.S. and Middle Eastern countries happens in the work place. The workplace, whether that consists of business trips, telephone conferences or exchange of emails, is an environment where cultural distance can greatly hinder a work interaction. In a discussion about cultural distance with Professor Johnston's Intercultural and Gender Communications class and Effat University's class, the dissimilarity between individualistic elements of the workplace and collectivistic elements became very clear.
In Saudi Arabia, work is done as a team. Decisions are discussed with all members of the team and work is much more process-focused. Unlike the U.S., the main focus and driving factor of a project is the process of working together and forming relationships with the team. Due to the collectivist process of completing a work project, there is less value of time. Projects are completed at a pace most comfortable to the team.
If an American were to travel to S.A. and work in a Saudi Arabian workplace, their collective nature would probably not sit well with the American. The idea of having one decision be contemplated and reflected on by multiple people may drive the American crazy. The individualistic nature of Americans as goal-oriented and focused on achieving the final product on their own would make teamwork in the workplace a difficult concept to grasp.
The difference in cultural norms and perceptions that the U.S. and S.A. have in the workplace create a greater cultural distance between the two countries. The differences explained above also have the potential to fuel conflict. If the American who traveled to S.A. attempts to work on a project by him/herself and does not easily accept intellectual contributions from others, his Saudi Arabian collages may think he/she is rude and arrogant, when in reality that is just the culture he/she comes from.
Geography
Geography is another contributing factor to creating cultural distance. The figure 6 chart is taken from an issue of The Harvard Review. This chart reveals other contributing factors to cultural distance or what The Harvard Review termed as "distance between two countries". As said in figure 6, geographical aspects such as a lack of a common border, waterway access, adequate transportation and communication between two countries can contribute to cultural distance (Ghemawat, 2004, p. 1). Physical remoteness and variance in climate between two countries are additional factors. Canada is a good example of a country to compare to the US. Not only do these two countries share a border but they also share similar means of transportation, accessible and easy transportation between the two countries and a similar climate. Evidence of The Harvard Review's claims is supported in figure 5. When the cultural dimensions are compared between the two countries, the scores are extremely close in value, some only differing by one point.
Going back to Figure 3, Saudi Arabia is a country that does not share any borders with the U.S., it is difficult to travel between the two countries and there is a tremendous difference in climate. The scores in Figure 3 differ greatly. Even further evidence of how geographic distance affects cultural distance can be seen in Figure 8's comparison between Iraq and Saudi Arabia which are neighboring countries (figure 7). Similar to the U.S. and Canada, their scores are close or even the same in value.
Many different factors play into geography other than just ease of transportation and climate. Geography also leads to differences in religion and ways of life. All these factors are why geography creates divergent cultural norms, worldviews, attitudes, perceptions and ideas between countries.
Going back to Figure 3, Saudi Arabia is a country that does not share any borders with the U.S., it is difficult to travel between the two countries and there is a tremendous difference in climate. The scores in Figure 3 differ greatly. Even further evidence of how geographic distance affects cultural distance can be seen in Figure 8's comparison between Iraq and Saudi Arabia which are neighboring countries (figure 7). Similar to the U.S. and Canada, their scores are close or even the same in value.
Many different factors play into geography other than just ease of transportation and climate. Geography also leads to differences in religion and ways of life. All these factors are why geography creates divergent cultural norms, worldviews, attitudes, perceptions and ideas between countries.
Psychic Distance
Different from cultural distance but closely related is psychic distance. Psychic distance differs from cultural distance because it is the distance formed in an individual's mind due to perceptual differences between the individual's native country and a foreign country (Sousa, Bradley, 2006, p. 54).
This perception is an individual's interpretation of reality which makes it highly subjective. Perceptions differ depending on exposure to different cultures, values and norms taught growing up, worldviews and many other factors. Since psychic distance is highly subjective, it is only applied at an individual level as opposed to a cultural or country level.
This perception is an individual's interpretation of reality which makes it highly subjective. Perceptions differ depending on exposure to different cultures, values and norms taught growing up, worldviews and many other factors. Since psychic distance is highly subjective, it is only applied at an individual level as opposed to a cultural or country level.
(Lack of) Measurement
The individuality of psychic distance also means that Hofstede's cultural dimension measurements cannot be applied to psychic distance. In fact, few indices have been created to attempt to measure psychic distance since the people creating it would have their own individual perceptions and standards. Social psychologist and cross-cultural researcher Shalom Shwartz has introduced several interesting ways to conceptualize psychic distance though despite its subjectivity.
Shwartz theorizes that values are a key component of psychic distance. Values are a person's guiding principles of selection, interpretation, evaluation, and justification of his/her behavior. An individual's values determine how he/she responds to and interprets a situation. Schwartz developed four value types to relate individual values to psychic distance. These value types include self-transcendence, self-enhancement, openness to change and conservation (Sousa & Bradley, 2006, p. 55). These factors determine the size of psychic distance between two countries.
Shwartz theorizes that values are a key component of psychic distance. Values are a person's guiding principles of selection, interpretation, evaluation, and justification of his/her behavior. An individual's values determine how he/she responds to and interprets a situation. Schwartz developed four value types to relate individual values to psychic distance. These value types include self-transcendence, self-enhancement, openness to change and conservation (Sousa & Bradley, 2006, p. 55). These factors determine the size of psychic distance between two countries.
Personal Experience
I was so excited on the first day of Intercultural and Gender Communications when Professor Johnston announced the course would incorporate interactions with Saudi Arabians. I grew up in a city with little racial and religious diversity so the opportunity to personally interact with women at Effat University was thrilling. However, the psychic distance in my mind between Saudi Arabia and the U.S. was expansive due false perceptions I had. The images that came to mind when my professor first said "Saudi Arabia" were not positive ones. I thought of news stories I heard and saw on TV and the internet of violent people who hated the United States and of a country crammed with violence. Unfortunately I think this is the reality for a lot of other Americans as well. I can assure you though from my experience in this course, that is not the case.
Throughout the past three months I have spoken with and gotten to know two beautiful, intelligent and funny Saudi Arabian women who take pride in their country. I now know Saudi Arabia as a place filled with prosperity (unlike my perception of desert land filled with camels) (See image 9), a beautiful and inspiring religion (See images 10 & 11) and people that love their country. Our individual Skype interactions, entire class Skype sessions, my visit to a mosque and learning about the Saudi Arabian way of life, traditions, values, religion and many other aspects of the culture changed the way I view the country.
My personal testimony is an example of how psychic distance can change and decrease. My initial perceptions of Saudi Arabia made me believe I would never be able to relate to their culture. I was clearly proven wrong though. Even though cultural factors maintain distance between the U.S. and S.A., my psychic distance has significantly diminished. By putting aside my preconceived notions and having an open mind and ears, I absorbed an immense amount of information from this experience. My testimony also suggests how other people can reduce their psychic distance between the U.S. and any other country. Learning about a new country and actively participating in their culture even if it has to be from thousands of miles away, can open new doors and an entirely new way of thinking.
Fellow student, Stephanie Browne also experienced a decrease in psychic distance as well. "Psychic distances depend a lot on personal experience, so because we’ve been able to log many hours of conversation with people in another country, we see more similarities between ourselves and that other culture. This demonstrates the importance of engaging in discussion with people not immersed in the same society as you. The smaller those cultural and psychic distances get, the easier it is to communicate and gain a better understanding of the world." (2012)
Throughout the past three months I have spoken with and gotten to know two beautiful, intelligent and funny Saudi Arabian women who take pride in their country. I now know Saudi Arabia as a place filled with prosperity (unlike my perception of desert land filled with camels) (See image 9), a beautiful and inspiring religion (See images 10 & 11) and people that love their country. Our individual Skype interactions, entire class Skype sessions, my visit to a mosque and learning about the Saudi Arabian way of life, traditions, values, religion and many other aspects of the culture changed the way I view the country.
My personal testimony is an example of how psychic distance can change and decrease. My initial perceptions of Saudi Arabia made me believe I would never be able to relate to their culture. I was clearly proven wrong though. Even though cultural factors maintain distance between the U.S. and S.A., my psychic distance has significantly diminished. By putting aside my preconceived notions and having an open mind and ears, I absorbed an immense amount of information from this experience. My testimony also suggests how other people can reduce their psychic distance between the U.S. and any other country. Learning about a new country and actively participating in their culture even if it has to be from thousands of miles away, can open new doors and an entirely new way of thinking.
Fellow student, Stephanie Browne also experienced a decrease in psychic distance as well. "Psychic distances depend a lot on personal experience, so because we’ve been able to log many hours of conversation with people in another country, we see more similarities between ourselves and that other culture. This demonstrates the importance of engaging in discussion with people not immersed in the same society as you. The smaller those cultural and psychic distances get, the easier it is to communicate and gain a better understanding of the world." (2012)
Causes of Psychic Distance
Since psychic distance is an individual perception of a culture, it can develop by a multitude of factors. Media is one of the most influential aspects that contributes to the development of psychic distance. In a Skype session I had with Dana, she asked what American media depicts of Saudi Arabia and the answers I instantly thought of were not easy to share. The only images and stories I could think of were ones of violence and terrorism. I told her I believe media tends to show extreme aspects of her culture and generalizes those events as if they're happening frequently and all over the country. The messages I am frequently exposed to are the most impactful contributors to the psychic distance I had between Saudi Arabia and the United States.
An additional cause of psychic distance is cultural distance. When there is a greater cultural distance between two countries there tends to be less available knowledge to people which makes the "other country" difficult to understand (Sousa & Bradley, 2006, p.62). Simple factors such as geographic distance contribute to psychic distance as well as cultural distance. When a culture is physically far away, the belief of never being able to relate to that culture due to its distance is formed.
An additional cause of psychic distance is cultural distance. When there is a greater cultural distance between two countries there tends to be less available knowledge to people which makes the "other country" difficult to understand (Sousa & Bradley, 2006, p.62). Simple factors such as geographic distance contribute to psychic distance as well as cultural distance. When a culture is physically far away, the belief of never being able to relate to that culture due to its distance is formed.
Cultural Adaptation
The final topic of this chapter is cultural adaptation. Cultural adaptation is a person's ability to adapt to another culture. The concept of cultural adaptation is applied for long-term travels. The entire cultural adaptation process doesn't usually occur from a week-long visit to another culture, but from immersing yourself in another culture for an extended period of time or even for a lifetime.
The ease of cultural adaptation is dictated by many factors including cultural and psychic distance. If two countries have little cultural distance, cultural adaptation will come more easily than two countries that have large cultural distance. For example, the following quote is taken from a Skype interaction between American student Christopher Ray and Saudi Arabian student Rida.
"Rida, on the other hand, told us how she adapted to Saudi Arabian culture. She was born and raised in Pakistan, where she attended school. Two years ago her father got a job in Saudi Arabia and while Rida could have stayed in Pakistan, she decided to move to Saudi Arabia with her family. She said that she adapted to Saudi Arabian culture much faster than she thought she would. Her preconceived notions of Saudi Arabia were shattered. She originally thought (and this is an actual quote), 'What the hell? That place is so damn dull.' But she came to realize that there were many intellectual women, well-developed areas, etc. Some parts of her life had to change, such as wearing the head-covering out in public, but she said that wasn't too big of a change....She seemed more concerned with her adaptation skills in the future, as she plans to move to Canada with her husband (due to an arranged marriage between old family friends)." (C. Ray, 2012)
This testimony is an example of how cultural adaptation for a Pakistani to Saudi Arabia was not too difficult of a process, which makes sense since the two countries have little cultural distance. The testimony also expresses Rida's concern for adaptation to Canadian culture since she is Saudi Arabian. This is a legitimate worry because these two countries have much larger cultural distance. The adaptation is definitely possible but will take longer and require more patience, open mindedness and positivity.
The ease of cultural adaptation is dictated by many factors including cultural and psychic distance. If two countries have little cultural distance, cultural adaptation will come more easily than two countries that have large cultural distance. For example, the following quote is taken from a Skype interaction between American student Christopher Ray and Saudi Arabian student Rida.
"Rida, on the other hand, told us how she adapted to Saudi Arabian culture. She was born and raised in Pakistan, where she attended school. Two years ago her father got a job in Saudi Arabia and while Rida could have stayed in Pakistan, she decided to move to Saudi Arabia with her family. She said that she adapted to Saudi Arabian culture much faster than she thought she would. Her preconceived notions of Saudi Arabia were shattered. She originally thought (and this is an actual quote), 'What the hell? That place is so damn dull.' But she came to realize that there were many intellectual women, well-developed areas, etc. Some parts of her life had to change, such as wearing the head-covering out in public, but she said that wasn't too big of a change....She seemed more concerned with her adaptation skills in the future, as she plans to move to Canada with her husband (due to an arranged marriage between old family friends)." (C. Ray, 2012)
This testimony is an example of how cultural adaptation for a Pakistani to Saudi Arabia was not too difficult of a process, which makes sense since the two countries have little cultural distance. The testimony also expresses Rida's concern for adaptation to Canadian culture since she is Saudi Arabian. This is a legitimate worry because these two countries have much larger cultural distance. The adaptation is definitely possible but will take longer and require more patience, open mindedness and positivity.
Cultural Adaptation Process
Cultural adaptation consists of four stages. These stages are generally followed in order and a person can remain in any stage for varying amounts of time.
Stage 1: Honeymoon
Have you ever visited a country and just felt so excited to be there? Everything you see and do is so new and thrilling and you just love the culture, environment, location, everything? Well you were in the honeymoon stage. You were most likely in that culture no longer than a few months. If you're immersed in a culture for a short period of time you'll probably stay in this stage.
Stage 2: Crisis
Say good bye to your honeymoon and say hello to crisis mode. By this time, a visitor is feeling annoyed, exhausted and homesick and is becoming highly critical of the host culture. Some people never leave this stage even if this is their new permanent culture. Culture shock may also occur during crisis stage of cultural adaptation. Culture shock is when a person feels extreme distress and anxiety due to the sudden exposure of a foreign/new cultural environment (Dictionary.com, 2012).
Stage 3: Adaptation
Once a visitor moves past the honeymoon and crisis stages, he/she will hopefully begin to adapt to the new culture. Adaptation occurs once the visitor becomes more comfortable with the rules, social norms and traditions of the culture. In this stage the visitor is embracing the culture and beginning to mesh with it. Some people remain in this stage.
Stage 4: Biculturism
Biculturism is when a person has the ability to shift between his/her native culture and the new culture. The individual is comfortable in both cultures and can identify with both.
If a person becomes somewhat advanced in this stage, he/she may also be able to code-switch. Code-switching is the ability to switch languages and styles of communication including non-verbal cues, intonation, etc. This stage takes time and patience to get to but is highly achievable.
The biculturism stage also introduces a personal transformation within the individual. If a person can identify with, relate to and fully understand another culture, he/she will most likely undergo a significant personal transformation. His/her change in identity and worldviews will cause this.
If a person becomes somewhat advanced in this stage, he/she may also be able to code-switch. Code-switching is the ability to switch languages and styles of communication including non-verbal cues, intonation, etc. This stage takes time and patience to get to but is highly achievable.
The biculturism stage also introduces a personal transformation within the individual. If a person can identify with, relate to and fully understand another culture, he/she will most likely undergo a significant personal transformation. His/her change in identity and worldviews will cause this.
In Context
Now this information will be put into context of what you, an American, visiting Saudi Arabia would experience in the cultural adaptation process. When you first arrive to Saudi Arabia you'll probably be ecstatic at the new culture you're experiencing. The city life, metropolis, Islamic religion, people and environment will be a lot to take in. Everything will be new and you'll love the culture. (See images 12-15)
However, as time progress and you've been there for maybe two months, you may start to become frustrated. The language barrier between English and Arabic will feel impossible to overcome, you may start to hate the heat, and the fact that every little decision that needs to be made when consulting with a Saudi, needs to be discussed with multiple people will start to drive you crazy. You may feel home sick and want to leave. Even though at this point, it may feel like you'll never be able to adjust, if you are patient and have an open mind, adaptation will occur.
As time progresses, hopefully you can adjust to the collectivist culture, the different weather, and maybe learn a few Arabic words. Developing friendships with native people will be key to achieving adaptation. Having meaningful relationships will help improve your experience there and make the cultural adaptation process easier.
If you end up visiting Saudi Arabia numerous times or moving there, biculturism will probably occur. Having relationships in America and in Saudi Arabia, knowing the language, traditions and social norms and spending time in each culture will enable you to develop a new identity that encompasses the U.S. and Saudi Arabia.
However, as time progress and you've been there for maybe two months, you may start to become frustrated. The language barrier between English and Arabic will feel impossible to overcome, you may start to hate the heat, and the fact that every little decision that needs to be made when consulting with a Saudi, needs to be discussed with multiple people will start to drive you crazy. You may feel home sick and want to leave. Even though at this point, it may feel like you'll never be able to adjust, if you are patient and have an open mind, adaptation will occur.
As time progresses, hopefully you can adjust to the collectivist culture, the different weather, and maybe learn a few Arabic words. Developing friendships with native people will be key to achieving adaptation. Having meaningful relationships will help improve your experience there and make the cultural adaptation process easier.
If you end up visiting Saudi Arabia numerous times or moving there, biculturism will probably occur. Having relationships in America and in Saudi Arabia, knowing the language, traditions and social norms and spending time in each culture will enable you to develop a new identity that encompasses the U.S. and Saudi Arabia.
Conclusion
To conclude the chapter, let us recap some of the main ideas. Cultural distance and psychic distance are two factors that can inhibit two cultures or people from fully understanding each other.
These distances are formed by many aspects, but cultural distance is based mostly on Hofstede's cultural dimensions and geography. Psychic distance is an individual's own perception of the magnitude of differences between cultures. Psychic distance can be decreased if a person chooses to expose him/herself to the opposing culture and learn about it.
Both cultural distance and psychic distance can affect how difficult the cultural adaptation process is. If the distances are large, an individual might go into the cross-cultural interaction with a closed mind and the idea that adaptation will be impossible. If this is the case cultural adaptation will be much more difficult and displeasing. However, if an individual takes the time to learn about the new culture before visiting, and visits with an open and curious mind, the adaptation process will be much smoother.
If you plan on visiting Saudi Arabia any time soon, one of my Skype partners, Dana, wants me to relay the message that Saudis are very welcoming people and they treat foreign people well. Many people there want to learn more about Americans and have the opportunity to show us their Saudi culture.
So with those final encouraging words, good luck on your adventure to Saudi Arabia if you foresee that in your future, and hopefully this chapter was able to give you insight on cross-cultural interactions.
These distances are formed by many aspects, but cultural distance is based mostly on Hofstede's cultural dimensions and geography. Psychic distance is an individual's own perception of the magnitude of differences between cultures. Psychic distance can be decreased if a person chooses to expose him/herself to the opposing culture and learn about it.
Both cultural distance and psychic distance can affect how difficult the cultural adaptation process is. If the distances are large, an individual might go into the cross-cultural interaction with a closed mind and the idea that adaptation will be impossible. If this is the case cultural adaptation will be much more difficult and displeasing. However, if an individual takes the time to learn about the new culture before visiting, and visits with an open and curious mind, the adaptation process will be much smoother.
If you plan on visiting Saudi Arabia any time soon, one of my Skype partners, Dana, wants me to relay the message that Saudis are very welcoming people and they treat foreign people well. Many people there want to learn more about Americans and have the opportunity to show us their Saudi culture.
So with those final encouraging words, good luck on your adventure to Saudi Arabia if you foresee that in your future, and hopefully this chapter was able to give you insight on cross-cultural interactions.
References
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Ghemawat, P. (2004). Distance still matters: The hard reality of global expansion. The Harvard Review, 1. Retrieved December 3, 2012.
Itim International. (n.d.). Geert Hofstede. Dimensions. Retrieved December 3, 2012, from http://geert-hofstede.com/dimensions.html
Morosini, P., Shane, S., & Singh, H. (1998). National cultural distance and cross-border acquisition performance. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(1), 137-158. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Raza, G., Singh, S., & Dutt, B. (2001). Public, science, and cultural distance. Sage Journals, 23(3), 293-309. Retrieved November 26, 2012.
Skype #6 [Interview by S. Browne]. (2012, November 18). Retrieved December 10, 2012, from https://courses201208.hope.edu/mod/forum/discuss.php?d=6907
Skype 7 [Interview by C. Ray]. (2012, December 3). Retrieved December 9, 2012, from https://courses201208.hope.edu/mod/forum/discuss.php?d=7669
Sousa, C. M., & Bradley, F. (2006). Cultural distance and psychic distance: Two peas in a pod? Journal of International Marketing, 14(1), 49-70. Retrieved November 24, 2012.